牛頓pdf

Ⅰ 牛頓介紹(英語的)

Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopher, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science.[2] His treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and predictive power of his laws was integral to the scientific revolution, the advancement of heliocentrism, and the broader acceptance of the notion that rational investigation can reveal the inner workings of nature.

In mechanics, Newton also markedly enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope and discovered that the spectrum of colors observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as Roger Bacon had claimed in the thirteenth century). Newton notably argued that light is composed of particles. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and proposed a theory of the origin of stars. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.

French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that he was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[3] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph:

Isaac Newton was one of the leading figures of the scientific revolution is the seventeenth century. He devoted his life to the study of the natural world, discovering the laws of gravity and motion, analyzing light, and developing the mathematics of calculus. He was born prematurely on December 25, 1642, in Woolsthorpe, England, to a poor farming family. Newton was taken out of school to work on the family farm at the age of 16 after his stepfather's death.

English physicist and mathematician who was born into a poor farming family. Luckily for humanity, Newton was not a good farmer, and was sent to Cambridge to study to become a preacher. At Cambridge, Newton studied mathematics, being especially strongly influenced by Euclid, although he was also influenced by Baconian and Cartesian philosophies. Newton was forced to leave Cambridge when it was closed because of the plague, and it was ring this period that he made some of his most significant discoveries. With the reticence he was to show later in life, Newton did not, however, publish his results.

Newton suffered a mental breakdown in 1675 and was still recovering through 1679. In response to a letter from Hooke, he suggested that a particle, if released, would spiral in to the center of the Earth. Hooke wrote back, claiming that the path would not be a spiral, but an ellipse. Newton, who hated being bested, then proceeded to work out the mathematics of orbits. Again, he did not publish his calculations. Newton then began devoting his efforts to theological speculation and put the calculations on elliptical motion aside, telling Halley he had lost them (Westfall 1993, p. 403). Halley, who had become interested in orbits, finally convinced Newton to expand and publish his calculations. Newton devoted the period from August 1684 to spring 1686 to this task, and the result became one of the most important and influential works on physics of all times, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687), often shortened to Principia Mathematica or simply "the Principia."

In Book I of Principia, Newton opened with definitions and the three laws of motion now known as Newton's laws (laws of inertia, action and reaction, and acceleration proportional to force). Book II presented Newton's new scientific philosophy which came to replace Cartesianism. Finally, Book III consisted of applications of his dynamics, including an explanation for tides and a theory of lunar motion. To test his hypothesis of universal gravitation, Newton wrote Flamsteed to ask if Saturn had been observed to slow down upon passing Jupiter. The surprised Flamsteed replied that an effect had indeed been observed, and it was closely predicted by the calculations Newton had provided. Newton's equations were further confirmed by observing the shape of the Earth to be oblate spheroidal, as Newton claimed it should be, rather than prolate spheroidal, as claimed by the Cartesians. Newton's equations also described the motion of Moon by successive approximations, and correctly predicted the return of Halley's Comet. Newton also correctly formulated and solved the first ever problem in the calculus of variations which involved finding the surface of revolution which would give minimum resistance to flow (assuming a specific drag law).

Newton invented a scientific method which was truly universal in its scope. Newton presented his methodology as a set of four rules for scientific reasoning. These rules were stated in the Principia and proposed that (1) we are to admit no more causes of natural things such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances, (2) the same natural effects must be assigned to the same causes, (3) qualities of bodies are to be esteemed as universal, and (4) propositions deced from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate until other phenomena contradict them.

These four concise and universal rules for investigation were truly revolutionary. By their application, Newton formulated the universal laws of nature with which he was able to unravel virtually all the unsolved problems of his day. Newton went much further than outlining his rules for reasoning, however, actually describing how they might be applied to the solution of a given problem. The analytic method he invented far exceeded the more philosophical and less scientifically rigorous approaches of Aristotle and Aquinas. Newton refined Galileo's experimental method, creating the compositional method of experimentation still practiced today. In fact, the following description of the experimental method from Newton's Optics could easily be mistaken for a modern statement of current methods of investigation, if not for Newton's use of the words "natural philosophy" in place of the modern term "the physical sciences." Newton wrote, "As in mathematics, so in natural philosophy the investigation of difficult things by the method of analysis ought ever to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists of making experiments and observations, and in drawing general conclusions from them by inction...by this way of analysis we may proceed from compounds to ingredients, and from motions to the forces procing them; and in general from effects to their causes, and from particular causes to more general ones till the argument end in the most general. This is the method of analysis: and the synthesis consists in assuming the causes discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena preceding from them, and proving the explanations."

Newton formulated the classical theories of mechanics and optics and invented calculus years before Leibniz. However, he did not publish his work on calculus until afterward Leibniz had published his. This led to a bitter priority dispute between English and continental mathematicians which persisted for decades, to the detriment of all concerned. Newton discovered that the binomial theorem was valid for fractional powers, but left it for Wallis to publish (which he did, with appropriate credit to Newton). Newton formulated a theory of sound, but derived a speed which did not agree with his experiments. The reason for the discrepancy was that the concept of adiabatic propagation did not yet exist, so Newton's answer was too low by a factor of , where is the ratio of heat capacities of air. Newton therefore fudged his theory until agreement was achieved (Engineering and Science, pp. 15-16).

In Optics (1704), whose publication Newton delayed until Hooke's death, Newton observed that white light could be separated by a prism into a spectrum of different colors, each characterized by a unique refractivity, and proposed the corpuscular theory of light. Newton's views on optics were born out of the original prism experiments he performed at Cambridge. In his "experimentum crucis" (crucial experiment), he found that the image proced by a prism was oval-shaped and not circular, as current theories of light would require. He observed a half-red, half-blue string through a prism, and found the ends to be disjointed. He also observed Newton's rings, which are actually a manifestation of the wave nature of light which Newton did not believe in. Newton believed that light must move faster in a medium when it is refracted towards the normal, in opposition to the result predicted by Huygens's wave theory.

Newton also formulated a system of chemistry in Query 31 at the end of Optics. In this corpuscular theory, "elements" consisted of different arrangements of atoms, and atoms consisted of small, hard, billiard ball-like particles. He explained chemical reactions in terms of the chemical affinities of the participating substances. Newton devoted a majority of his free time later in life (after 1678) to fruitless alchemical experiments.

Newton was extremely sensitive to criticism, and even ceased publishing until the death of his arch-rival Hooke. It was only through the prodding of Halley that Newton was persuaded at all to publish the Principia Mathematica. In the latter portion of his life, he devoted much of his time to alchemical researches and trying to date events in the Bible. After Newton's death, his burial place was moved. During the exhumation, it was discovered that Newton had massive amounts of mercury in his body, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. This would certainly explain Newton's eccentricity in late life. Newton was appointed Warden of the British Mint in 1695. Newton was knighted by Queen Anne. However, the act was "an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705" (Westfall 1993, p. 625).

Newton singlehandedly contributed more to the development of science than any other indivial in history. He surpassed all the gains brought about by the great scientific minds of antiquity, procing a scheme of the universe which was more consistent, elegant, and intuitive than any proposed before. Newton stated explicit principles of scientific methods which applied universally to all branches of science. This was in sharp contradistinction to the earlier methodologies of Aristotle and Aquinas, which had outlined separate methods for different disciplines.

Although his methodology was strictly logical, Newton still believed deeply in the necessity of a God. His theological views are characterized by his belief that the beauty and regularity of the natural world could only "proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being." He felt that "the Supreme God exists necessarily, and by the same necessity he exists always and everywhere." Newton believed that God periodically intervened to keep the universe going on track. He therefore denied the importance of Leibniz's vis viva as nothing more than an interesting quantity which remained constant in elastic collisions and therefore had no physical importance or meaning.

Although earlier philosophers such as Galileo and John Philoponus had used experimental proceres, Newton was the first to explicitly define and systematize their use. His methodology proced a neat balance between theoretical and experimental inquiry and between the mathematical and mechanical approaches. Newton mathematized all of the physical sciences, recing their study to a rigorous, universal, and rational procere which marked the ushering in of the Age of Reason. Thus, the basic principles of investigation set down by Newton have persisted virtually without alteration until modern times. In the years since Newton's death, they have borne fruit far exceeding anything even Newton could have imagined. They form the foundation on which the technological civilization of today rests. The principles expounded by Newton were even applied to the social sciences, influencing the economic theories of Adam Smith and the decision to make the United States legislature bicameral. These latter applications, however, pale in contrast to Newton's scientific contributions.

It is therefore no exaggeration to identify Newton as the single most important contributor to the development of modern science. The Latin inscription on Newton's tomb, despite its bombastic language, is thus fully justified in proclaiming, "Mortals! rejoice at so great an ornament to the human race!" Alexander Pope's couplet is also apropos: "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; God said, Let Newton be! and all was light."

牛頓，偉大的英國物理學家，1642年12月25日生於林肯郡伍爾索普村的一個農民家庭．12歲他在格蘭撒姆的公立學校讀書時，就表現了對實驗和機械發明的興趣，自己動手製作了水鍾、風磨和日晷等．1661年，牛頓就讀於劍橋大學的三一學院，成了一名優秀學生．1669年，年僅27歲，就擔任了劍橋的數學教授．1672年當選為英國皇家學會會員．

1685～1687年，在天文學家哈雷的鼓勵和贊助下，牛頓發表了著名的《自然哲學的數學原理》，完成了具有歷史意義的發現——運動定律和萬有引力定律，對近代自然科學的發展，作出了重大貢獻．1703年，當選為英國皇家學會會長．1727年3月27日，逝世於倫敦郊外的一個小村落里．

牛頓不僅對於力學，在其他方面也有很大貢獻．在數學方面，他發現了二項式定理，創立了微積分學；在光學方面，進行了太陽光的色散實驗，證明了白光是由單色光復合而成的，研究了顏色的理論，還發明了反射望遠鏡．

Ⅱ 《莎士比亞、牛頓和貝多芬不同的創造模式》pdf下載在線閱讀，求百度網盤雲資源

《莎士比亞、牛頓和貝多芬》（S.錢德拉塞卡）電子書網盤下載免費在線閱讀

資源鏈接：

鏈接：https://pan..com/s/1iXXy_VL8-bGlek0-DWZWbQ

書名：莎士比亞、牛頓和貝多芬

作者：S.錢德拉塞卡

譯者：楊建鄴

豆瓣評分：7.9

出版社：湖南科學技術出版社

出版年份：1995

頁數：197

內容簡介：

本書收集了傑出的天體物理學家S·錢德拉塞卡教授的七篇演講。它們闡述了作者對於科學研究的動機以及科學創造模式的一般觀點。錢德拉塞卡認為，追求科學的過程就是追求美。美是各部分之間以及部分與整體之間的固有的和諧。他描述了幾位傑出的物理學家創造和體驗美的經歷，如海森堡發現量子理論，愛因斯坦完美其著名的方程式以及魏爾提出引力規范理論等等，它們都涉及到共同的問題：動機、創造和美。

作者簡介：

S·錢德拉塞卡：美籍印度天體物理學家。因其「對恆星結構和演化過程的研究，特別是對白矮星的結構和變化的精確預言」而獲得1983年諾貝爾物理學獎。

Ⅲ 《牛頓的新裝一個預謀了345年的復仇故事》pdf下載在線閱讀全文，求百度網盤雲資源

《牛頓的新裝》（十七進制）電子書網盤下載免費在線閱讀

鏈接: https://pan..com/s/1txXlDAdhB1kVLlXsTMBj3g

書名：牛頓的新裝

作者：十七進制

豆瓣評分：5.8

出版社：鷺江出版社

出版年份：2007-11

頁數：256

內容簡介：

一本權威的《西方哲學史》，談到一套密傳哲學……一枚17世紀的德國古銀幣，牽扯出一個數百年的地下迷城……這個西方傳說已久的「可能世界」，竟然隱藏在東方消逝已久的「樓蘭古國」寢宮之下。300年來，這個世界為生存發展沿暗河遷徙數千公里。裡面的人不說話，不爭吵，不夢想，不煩惱，不哭泣，他們唯一做的事：就是計算！他們為什麼要孤守桃源離群獨處，為什麼如此憎恨牛頓的理論，為什麼把《周易》原本奉為聖經，為什麼把古銀幣作為他們的圖騰，為什麼把計算作為唯一存在……345年後，他們回來了，他們想做什麼……

作者簡介：

羅金海，湖北通城人。網名 「十七進制」、「能寫個把詩」。曾獲「行動力，思想力」全國徵文一等獎（《思想到底有多遠》），「一二·九」詩賽二等獎、入選《青年文學》「詩歌專刊」。另著長篇《冬天過去了》、《太陽以西，南方以南》。理工科出身，曾從事中國潛艇三維建模與生產設計，後入贅知名網站作編輯，現輾轉流離於東莞鳳崗。曾為《信息時報》《經濟觀察報》《中華讀書報》《大周刊》等報刊撰稿。個人特點：性格內向，脾氣火爆；頭腦發達，四肢簡單！

Ⅳ 求《牛頓傳破界創新者》全文免費下載百度網盤資源,謝謝~

《牛頓傳 破界創新者》網路網盤pdf最新全集下載:
鏈接：https://pan..com/s/1psMrsBAsCtkF09Q7A4Df2A

Ⅳ 《牛頓研究》pdf下載在線閱讀，求百度網盤雲資源

《牛頓研究》（[法] 亞歷山大·柯瓦雷）電子書網盤下載免費在線閱讀

資源鏈接：

鏈接：https://pan..com/s/1qZC8iMssvrkCdRhkwMXGgg

書名：牛頓研究

作者：[法] 亞歷山大·柯瓦雷

譯者：張卜天

豆瓣評分：9.3

出版社：商務印書館

出版年份：2016-10

頁數：453

內容簡介：本書是關於17世紀科學革命和牛頓的經典研究，也是科學思想史學派的領袖人物亞歷山大·柯瓦雷生前審訂出版的最後一部著作。書中的七篇文章從不同方面研究了牛頓的科學思想，深入剖析了牛頓在建立概念體系過程中所付出的巨大努力，以及這位科學巨人復雜性情的方方面面。其中第一篇文章《牛頓綜合的意義》更是科學史領域的不朽名篇。

牛頓是無與倫比的科學巨人，同時，正是經由牛頓，近代科學從根基上與哲學離異。柯瓦雷的這部著作深入刻畫了思想史上的這一巨變。張卜天的譯文可靠、流暢。強力推薦。

——陳嘉映，首都師范大學哲學系教授

《牛頓研究》分析手法老到，與作者那本革命性的《伽利略研究》堪稱雙璧。

——吳國盛，北京大學科學史與科學哲學研究中心主任

作者簡介：作者亞歷山大•柯瓦雷（1892-1964），俄裔法國哲學家、科學史家。在科學史方面，柯瓦雷享有不亞於科學史之父喬治•薩頓的地位。柯瓦雷的著作和他在普林斯頓研究院的科學史講座，揭示了一種新的科學史研究方法，它不同於薩頓網路全書式的大綜合，而是以科學思想為線索從整體上展現科 學史，從而使科學史研究具備了極強的思想魅力，吸引了一大群富有才華的學子轉向科學史並將之引為畢生的事業。柯瓦雷及其科學思想史學派所描繪的關於「科學革命」的雄偉畫卷，深深地影響了並且至今仍強烈地影響著一般社會受眾。換言之，為社會受眾所普遍接受的是柯瓦雷式的科學史。

譯者張卜天，傑出青年譯者，有譯著近40部。熱愛哲學和科學史方面的翻譯，研究方向為西方中世紀和近代早期科學思想史，研究領域主要集中在近代科學的起源和科學革命，特別關注現代性的起源，科學與哲學、神學的關系和互動，中世紀晚期和文藝復興時期的哲學、神學思潮對近代科學興起的影響等等。

Ⅵ 《食品化學》pdf下載在線閱讀，求百度網盤雲資源

《食品化學》（大衛·E.牛頓）電子書網盤下載免費在線閱讀

鏈接：https://pan..com/s/1I-Rv_1ZL3yWG05SmpSmSXw

書名：食品化學

作者：大衛·E.牛頓

譯者：王中華

豆瓣評分：7.8

出版社：上海科學技術文獻出版社

出版年份：2011-1

頁數：154

內容簡介：

《食品化學》內容簡介：飲料美酒，零食小吃，美食大餐無一不是生活中不可缺少的部分。但是你究竟對它們了解多少，我們每天吃的食品中到底含有哪些成分呢，就讓《食品化學》這本書帶你走進神奇的食品化學世界。你將會看到世界上第一種甜味劑是在一個多麼偶然的機會下發現的，古羅馬的麵包師傅又是如何用白堊粉和牛飼料給麵包摻假的。食鹽中為什麼要加碘？防腐劑到底是什麼東西？什麼是綠色食品？可口可樂裡面到底含有什麼神奇的原料？這些問題就讓《食品化學》來一一為你解答。

作者簡介：

大衛·E.牛頓博士（David E.Netwon Ph.D）從事數學和物理學教學13年。在美國塞勒姆州立學院（Salem State College）擔任化學和物理學教授長達15年。在舊金山大學職業技術學院任兼職副教授10年。他著作頗豐，已出版的達400多部。這些著作中包括教材、網路全書、教師參考書、研究指南、普及讀物、還有其他類型的教育材料。牛頓博士在Facts On File出版公司出版了《核能量》與《幹細胞研究》兩本書，還為萊納·斯鮑林（Linus Pauling）、詹姆斯·沃森（James Watson）和弗朗西斯·克里克（Francis Click）出版了傳記。

Ⅶ 誰有牛頓傳記never at rest PDF版本的電子書，求！！！

1643年1月4日，在英格蘭林肯郡小鎮沃爾索浦的一個自耕農家庭里，牛頓誕生了。牛頓是一個早產兒，出生時只有三磅重，接生婆和他的親人都擔心他能否活下來。誰也沒有料到這個看起來微不足道的小東西會成為了一位震古爍今的科學巨人，並且竟活到了85歲的高齡。

牛頓出生前三個月父親便去世了。在他兩歲時，母親改嫁給一個牧師，把牛頓留在外祖母身邊撫養。11歲時，母親的後夫去世，母親帶著和後夫所生的一子二女回到牛頓身邊。牛頓自幼沉默寡言，性格倔強，這種習性可能來自它的家庭處境。

大約從五歲開始，牛頓被送到公立學校讀書。少年時的牛頓並不是神童，他資質平常，成績一般，但他喜歡讀書，喜歡看一些介紹各種簡單機械模型製作方法的讀物，並從中受到啟發，自己動手製作些奇奇怪怪的小玩意，如風車、木鍾、折疊式提燈等等。