牛顿pdf

Ⅰ 牛顿介绍(英语的)

Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopher, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science.[2] His treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and predictive power of his laws was integral to the scientific revolution, the advancement of heliocentrism, and the broader acceptance of the notion that rational investigation can reveal the inner workings of nature.

In mechanics, Newton also markedly enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope and discovered that the spectrum of colors observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as Roger Bacon had claimed in the thirteenth century). Newton notably argued that light is composed of particles. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and proposed a theory of the origin of stars. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.

French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that he was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish."[3] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph:

Isaac Newton was one of the leading figures of the scientific revolution is the seventeenth century. He devoted his life to the study of the natural world, discovering the laws of gravity and motion, analyzing light, and developing the mathematics of calculus. He was born prematurely on December 25, 1642, in Woolsthorpe, England, to a poor farming family. Newton was taken out of school to work on the family farm at the age of 16 after his stepfather's death.

English physicist and mathematician who was born into a poor farming family. Luckily for humanity, Newton was not a good farmer, and was sent to Cambridge to study to become a preacher. At Cambridge, Newton studied mathematics, being especially strongly influenced by Euclid, although he was also influenced by Baconian and Cartesian philosophies. Newton was forced to leave Cambridge when it was closed because of the plague, and it was ring this period that he made some of his most significant discoveries. With the reticence he was to show later in life, Newton did not, however, publish his results.

Newton suffered a mental breakdown in 1675 and was still recovering through 1679. In response to a letter from Hooke, he suggested that a particle, if released, would spiral in to the center of the Earth. Hooke wrote back, claiming that the path would not be a spiral, but an ellipse. Newton, who hated being bested, then proceeded to work out the mathematics of orbits. Again, he did not publish his calculations. Newton then began devoting his efforts to theological speculation and put the calculations on elliptical motion aside, telling Halley he had lost them (Westfall 1993, p. 403). Halley, who had become interested in orbits, finally convinced Newton to expand and publish his calculations. Newton devoted the period from August 1684 to spring 1686 to this task, and the result became one of the most important and influential works on physics of all times, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) (1687), often shortened to Principia Mathematica or simply "the Principia."

In Book I of Principia, Newton opened with definitions and the three laws of motion now known as Newton's laws (laws of inertia, action and reaction, and acceleration proportional to force). Book II presented Newton's new scientific philosophy which came to replace Cartesianism. Finally, Book III consisted of applications of his dynamics, including an explanation for tides and a theory of lunar motion. To test his hypothesis of universal gravitation, Newton wrote Flamsteed to ask if Saturn had been observed to slow down upon passing Jupiter. The surprised Flamsteed replied that an effect had indeed been observed, and it was closely predicted by the calculations Newton had provided. Newton's equations were further confirmed by observing the shape of the Earth to be oblate spheroidal, as Newton claimed it should be, rather than prolate spheroidal, as claimed by the Cartesians. Newton's equations also described the motion of Moon by successive approximations, and correctly predicted the return of Halley's Comet. Newton also correctly formulated and solved the first ever problem in the calculus of variations which involved finding the surface of revolution which would give minimum resistance to flow (assuming a specific drag law).

Newton invented a scientific method which was truly universal in its scope. Newton presented his methodology as a set of four rules for scientific reasoning. These rules were stated in the Principia and proposed that (1) we are to admit no more causes of natural things such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances, (2) the same natural effects must be assigned to the same causes, (3) qualities of bodies are to be esteemed as universal, and (4) propositions deced from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate until other phenomena contradict them.

These four concise and universal rules for investigation were truly revolutionary. By their application, Newton formulated the universal laws of nature with which he was able to unravel virtually all the unsolved problems of his day. Newton went much further than outlining his rules for reasoning, however, actually describing how they might be applied to the solution of a given problem. The analytic method he invented far exceeded the more philosophical and less scientifically rigorous approaches of Aristotle and Aquinas. Newton refined Galileo's experimental method, creating the compositional method of experimentation still practiced today. In fact, the following description of the experimental method from Newton's Optics could easily be mistaken for a modern statement of current methods of investigation, if not for Newton's use of the words "natural philosophy" in place of the modern term "the physical sciences." Newton wrote, "As in mathematics, so in natural philosophy the investigation of difficult things by the method of analysis ought ever to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists of making experiments and observations, and in drawing general conclusions from them by inction...by this way of analysis we may proceed from compounds to ingredients, and from motions to the forces procing them; and in general from effects to their causes, and from particular causes to more general ones till the argument end in the most general. This is the method of analysis: and the synthesis consists in assuming the causes discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena preceding from them, and proving the explanations."

Newton formulated the classical theories of mechanics and optics and invented calculus years before Leibniz. However, he did not publish his work on calculus until afterward Leibniz had published his. This led to a bitter priority dispute between English and continental mathematicians which persisted for decades, to the detriment of all concerned. Newton discovered that the binomial theorem was valid for fractional powers, but left it for Wallis to publish (which he did, with appropriate credit to Newton). Newton formulated a theory of sound, but derived a speed which did not agree with his experiments. The reason for the discrepancy was that the concept of adiabatic propagation did not yet exist, so Newton's answer was too low by a factor of , where is the ratio of heat capacities of air. Newton therefore fudged his theory until agreement was achieved (Engineering and Science, pp. 15-16).

In Optics (1704), whose publication Newton delayed until Hooke's death, Newton observed that white light could be separated by a prism into a spectrum of different colors, each characterized by a unique refractivity, and proposed the corpuscular theory of light. Newton's views on optics were born out of the original prism experiments he performed at Cambridge. In his "experimentum crucis" (crucial experiment), he found that the image proced by a prism was oval-shaped and not circular, as current theories of light would require. He observed a half-red, half-blue string through a prism, and found the ends to be disjointed. He also observed Newton's rings, which are actually a manifestation of the wave nature of light which Newton did not believe in. Newton believed that light must move faster in a medium when it is refracted towards the normal, in opposition to the result predicted by Huygens's wave theory.

Newton also formulated a system of chemistry in Query 31 at the end of Optics. In this corpuscular theory, "elements" consisted of different arrangements of atoms, and atoms consisted of small, hard, billiard ball-like particles. He explained chemical reactions in terms of the chemical affinities of the participating substances. Newton devoted a majority of his free time later in life (after 1678) to fruitless alchemical experiments.

Newton was extremely sensitive to criticism, and even ceased publishing until the death of his arch-rival Hooke. It was only through the prodding of Halley that Newton was persuaded at all to publish the Principia Mathematica. In the latter portion of his life, he devoted much of his time to alchemical researches and trying to date events in the Bible. After Newton's death, his burial place was moved. During the exhumation, it was discovered that Newton had massive amounts of mercury in his body, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. This would certainly explain Newton's eccentricity in late life. Newton was appointed Warden of the British Mint in 1695. Newton was knighted by Queen Anne. However, the act was "an honor bestowed not for his contributions to science, nor for his service at the Mint, but for the greater glory of party politics in the election of 1705" (Westfall 1993, p. 625).

Newton singlehandedly contributed more to the development of science than any other indivial in history. He surpassed all the gains brought about by the great scientific minds of antiquity, procing a scheme of the universe which was more consistent, elegant, and intuitive than any proposed before. Newton stated explicit principles of scientific methods which applied universally to all branches of science. This was in sharp contradistinction to the earlier methodologies of Aristotle and Aquinas, which had outlined separate methods for different disciplines.

Although his methodology was strictly logical, Newton still believed deeply in the necessity of a God. His theological views are characterized by his belief that the beauty and regularity of the natural world could only "proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being." He felt that "the Supreme God exists necessarily, and by the same necessity he exists always and everywhere." Newton believed that God periodically intervened to keep the universe going on track. He therefore denied the importance of Leibniz's vis viva as nothing more than an interesting quantity which remained constant in elastic collisions and therefore had no physical importance or meaning.

Although earlier philosophers such as Galileo and John Philoponus had used experimental proceres, Newton was the first to explicitly define and systematize their use. His methodology proced a neat balance between theoretical and experimental inquiry and between the mathematical and mechanical approaches. Newton mathematized all of the physical sciences, recing their study to a rigorous, universal, and rational procere which marked the ushering in of the Age of Reason. Thus, the basic principles of investigation set down by Newton have persisted virtually without alteration until modern times. In the years since Newton's death, they have borne fruit far exceeding anything even Newton could have imagined. They form the foundation on which the technological civilization of today rests. The principles expounded by Newton were even applied to the social sciences, influencing the economic theories of Adam Smith and the decision to make the United States legislature bicameral. These latter applications, however, pale in contrast to Newton's scientific contributions.

It is therefore no exaggeration to identify Newton as the single most important contributor to the development of modern science. The Latin inscription on Newton's tomb, despite its bombastic language, is thus fully justified in proclaiming, "Mortals! rejoice at so great an ornament to the human race!" Alexander Pope's couplet is also apropos: "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; God said, Let Newton be! and all was light."

牛顿，伟大的英国物理学家，1642年12月25日生于林肯郡伍尔索普村的一个农民家庭．12岁他在格兰撒姆的公立学校读书时，就表现了对实验和机械发明的兴趣，自己动手制作了水钟、风磨和日晷等．1661年，牛顿就读于剑桥大学的三一学院，成了一名优秀学生．1669年，年仅27岁，就担任了剑桥的数学教授．1672年当选为英国皇家学会会员．

1685～1687年，在天文学家哈雷的鼓励和赞助下，牛顿发表了着名的《自然哲学的数学原理》，完成了具有历史意义的发现——运动定律和万有引力定律，对近代自然科学的发展，作出了重大贡献．1703年，当选为英国皇家学会会长．1727年3月27日，逝世于伦敦郊外的一个小村落里．

牛顿不仅对于力学，在其他方面也有很大贡献．在数学方面，他发现了二项式定理，创立了微积分学；在光学方面，进行了太阳光的色散实验，证明了白光是由单色光复合而成的，研究了颜色的理论，还发明了反射望远镜．

Ⅱ 《莎士比亚、牛顿和贝多芬不同的创造模式》pdf下载在线阅读，求百度网盘云资源

《莎士比亚、牛顿和贝多芬》（S.钱德拉塞卡）电子书网盘下载免费在线阅读

资源链接：

链接：https://pan..com/s/1iXXy_VL8-bGlek0-DWZWbQ

书名：莎士比亚、牛顿和贝多芬

作者：S.钱德拉塞卡

译者：杨建邺

豆瓣评分：7.9

出版社：湖南科学技术出版社

出版年份：1995

页数：197

内容简介：

本书收集了杰出的天体物理学家S·钱德拉塞卡教授的七篇演讲。它们阐述了作者对于科学研究的动机以及科学创造模式的一般观点。钱德拉塞卡认为，追求科学的过程就是追求美。美是各部分之间以及部分与整体之间的固有的和谐。他描述了几位杰出的物理学家创造和体验美的经历，如海森堡发现量子理论，爱因斯坦完美其着名的方程式以及魏尔提出引力规范理论等等，它们都涉及到共同的问题：动机、创造和美。

作者简介：

S·钱德拉塞卡：美籍印度天体物理学家。因其“对恒星结构和演化过程的研究，特别是对白矮星的结构和变化的精确预言”而获得1983年诺贝尔物理学奖。

Ⅲ 《牛顿的新装一个预谋了345年的复仇故事》pdf下载在线阅读全文，求百度网盘云资源

《牛顿的新装》（十七进制）电子书网盘下载免费在线阅读

链接: https://pan..com/s/1txXlDAdhB1kVLlXsTMBj3g

书名：牛顿的新装

作者：十七进制

豆瓣评分：5.8

出版社：鹭江出版社

出版年份：2007-11

页数：256

内容简介：

一本权威的《西方哲学史》，谈到一套密传哲学……一枚17世纪的德国古银币，牵扯出一个数百年的地下迷城……这个西方传说已久的“可能世界”，竟然隐藏在东方消逝已久的“楼兰古国”寝宫之下。300年来，这个世界为生存发展沿暗河迁徙数千公里。里面的人不说话，不争吵，不梦想，不烦恼，不哭泣，他们唯一做的事：就是计算！他们为什么要孤守桃源离群独处，为什么如此憎恨牛顿的理论，为什么把《周易》原本奉为圣经，为什么把古银币作为他们的图腾，为什么把计算作为唯一存在……345年后，他们回来了，他们想做什么……

作者简介：

罗金海，湖北通城人。网名 “十七进制”、“能写个把诗”。曾获“行动力，思想力”全国征文一等奖（《思想到底有多远》），“一二·九”诗赛二等奖、入选《青年文学》“诗歌专刊”。另着长篇《冬天过去了》、《太阳以西，南方以南》。理工科出身，曾从事中国潜艇三维建模与生产设计，后入赘知名网站作编辑，现辗转流离于东莞凤岗。曾为《信息时报》《经济观察报》《中华读书报》《大周刊》等报刊撰稿。个人特点：性格内向，脾气火爆；头脑发达，四肢简单！

Ⅳ 求《牛顿传破界创新者》全文免费下载百度网盘资源,谢谢~

《牛顿传 破界创新者》网络网盘pdf最新全集下载:
链接：https://pan..com/s/1psMrsBAsCtkF09Q7A4Df2A

Ⅳ 《牛顿研究》pdf下载在线阅读，求百度网盘云资源

《牛顿研究》（[法] 亚历山大·柯瓦雷）电子书网盘下载免费在线阅读

资源链接：

链接：https://pan..com/s/1qZC8iMssvrkCdRhkwMXGgg

书名：牛顿研究

作者：[法] 亚历山大·柯瓦雷

译者：张卜天

豆瓣评分：9.3

出版社：商务印书馆

出版年份：2016-10

页数：453

内容简介：本书是关于17世纪科学革命和牛顿的经典研究，也是科学思想史学派的领袖人物亚历山大·柯瓦雷生前审订出版的最后一部着作。书中的七篇文章从不同方面研究了牛顿的科学思想，深入剖析了牛顿在建立概念体系过程中所付出的巨大努力，以及这位科学巨人复杂性情的方方面面。其中第一篇文章《牛顿综合的意义》更是科学史领域的不朽名篇。

牛顿是无与伦比的科学巨人，同时，正是经由牛顿，近代科学从根基上与哲学离异。柯瓦雷的这部着作深入刻画了思想史上的这一巨变。张卜天的译文可靠、流畅。强力推荐。

——陈嘉映，首都师范大学哲学系教授

《牛顿研究》分析手法老到，与作者那本革命性的《伽利略研究》堪称双璧。

——吴国盛，北京大学科学史与科学哲学研究中心主任

作者简介：作者亚历山大•柯瓦雷（1892-1964），俄裔法国哲学家、科学史家。在科学史方面，柯瓦雷享有不亚于科学史之父乔治•萨顿的地位。柯瓦雷的着作和他在普林斯顿研究院的科学史讲座，揭示了一种新的科学史研究方法，它不同于萨顿网络全书式的大综合，而是以科学思想为线索从整体上展现科 学史，从而使科学史研究具备了极强的思想魅力，吸引了一大群富有才华的学子转向科学史并将之引为毕生的事业。柯瓦雷及其科学思想史学派所描绘的关于“科学革命”的雄伟画卷，深深地影响了并且至今仍强烈地影响着一般社会受众。换言之，为社会受众所普遍接受的是柯瓦雷式的科学史。

译者张卜天，杰出青年译者，有译着近40部。热爱哲学和科学史方面的翻译，研究方向为西方中世纪和近代早期科学思想史，研究领域主要集中在近代科学的起源和科学革命，特别关注现代性的起源，科学与哲学、神学的关系和互动，中世纪晚期和文艺复兴时期的哲学、神学思潮对近代科学兴起的影响等等。

Ⅵ 《食品化学》pdf下载在线阅读，求百度网盘云资源

《食品化学》（大卫·E.牛顿）电子书网盘下载免费在线阅读

链接：https://pan..com/s/1I-Rv_1ZL3yWG05SmpSmSXw

书名：食品化学

作者：大卫·E.牛顿

译者：王中华

豆瓣评分：7.8

出版社：上海科学技术文献出版社

出版年份：2011-1

页数：154

内容简介：

《食品化学》内容简介：饮料美酒，零食小吃，美食大餐无一不是生活中不可缺少的部分。但是你究竟对它们了解多少，我们每天吃的食品中到底含有哪些成分呢，就让《食品化学》这本书带你走进神奇的食品化学世界。你将会看到世界上第一种甜味剂是在一个多么偶然的机会下发现的，古罗马的面包师傅又是如何用白垩粉和牛饲料给面包掺假的。食盐中为什么要加碘？防腐剂到底是什么东西？什么是绿色食品？可口可乐里面到底含有什么神奇的原料？这些问题就让《食品化学》来一一为你解答。

作者简介：

大卫·E.牛顿博士（David E.Netwon Ph.D）从事数学和物理学教学13年。在美国塞勒姆州立学院（Salem State College）担任化学和物理学教授长达15年。在旧金山大学职业技术学院任兼职副教授10年。他着作颇丰，已出版的达400多部。这些着作中包括教材、网络全书、教师参考书、研究指南、普及读物、还有其他类型的教育材料。牛顿博士在Facts On File出版公司出版了《核能量》与《干细胞研究》两本书，还为莱纳·斯鲍林（Linus Pauling）、詹姆斯·沃森（James Watson）和弗朗西斯·克里克（Francis Click）出版了传记。

Ⅶ 谁有牛顿传记never at rest PDF版本的电子书，求！！！

1643年1月4日，在英格兰林肯郡小镇沃尔索浦的一个自耕农家庭里，牛顿诞生了。牛顿是一个早产儿，出生时只有三磅重，接生婆和他的亲人都担心他能否活下来。谁也没有料到这个看起来微不足道的小东西会成为了一位震古烁今的科学巨人，并且竟活到了85岁的高龄。

牛顿出生前三个月父亲便去世了。在他两岁时，母亲改嫁给一个牧师，把牛顿留在外祖母身边抚养。11岁时，母亲的后夫去世，母亲带着和后夫所生的一子二女回到牛顿身边。牛顿自幼沉默寡言，性格倔强，这种习性可能来自它的家庭处境。

大约从五岁开始，牛顿被送到公立学校读书。少年时的牛顿并不是神童，他资质平常，成绩一般，但他喜欢读书，喜欢看一些介绍各种简单机械模型制作方法的读物，并从中受到启发，自己动手制作些奇奇怪怪的小玩意，如风车、木钟、折叠式提灯等等。